Before & After. Antes y Después

Historia de Las Américas

Enriquece la comprensión cultural, sitúa la evolución del idioma en su contexto, incrementa la motivación al vincular las palabras con historias y fortalece las habilidades lingüísticas.

Las Castas

The rigid, race-based social hierarchy system in Spanish colonial America,

El rígido sistema de jerarquía social basado en la raza en la américa colonial española.

Purpose and Structure

Social Organization

Created by Spain to manage its colonies by assigning social status and legal rights according to racial background.

Racial Hierarchy

At the top were peninsulares (people born in Spain), followed by criollos (of Spanish descent but born in the Americas). Below them were various mixed-race groups, and at the bottom were Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans.

Complex Categories

Over time, many detailed labels emerged (such as castizo, chino, and lobo) to describe different racial mixes, often illustrated in “casta paintings.”

Impact
Shaping Daily Life: A person’s racial classification affected their legal rights, taxes, access to land, marriage options, and career opportunities.

Reinforcing Inequality

The system supported discrimination and kept most power in the hands of those born in Spain.

Legacy
Lasting Effects: Although formally ended after independence, the influence of this racial hierarchy still shapes social relations in many parts of Latin America today.

El Sistema

Peninsulares

Españoles nacidos en españa, que ocupaban el estatus social más alto.

Criollos

Españoles nacidos en américa, situados justo por debajo de los peninsulares.

Mestizos

Personas de ascendencia mixta europea (española) e indígena

Mulatos

Personas de ascendencia mixta europea (española) y fricana.

Indios

Pueblos indígenas de América.

Negros

Personas de ascendencia africana, a menudo esclavizadas o descendientes de esclavos.

Las Colonias y Recursos

España, From Hispania, Roman name meaning “land of rabbits.”

Capital: Madrid
Recursos : Minerales, agricultura (olivo, vid, cereales), pesca, energía renovable.

Resources: Minerals, agriculture (olive, vine, cereals), fishing, renewable energy.

Sudamérica /Suramérica

home to about 434 million people spread across 12 countries. You’ve got the heavy hitter, Brazil, which is a total powerhouse—it takes up nearly half the continent and cranks out half of its GDP. Then you have the Andean nations like Peru and Colombia, and the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay) where things get a bit chillier and more European in style.

Resources:
If you like extremes, this is your place:
The Amazon: It’s not just a forest; the Amazon River pumps out more water than any other river on Earth.
The Andes: The world's longest mountain range. It’s like a giant spine running down the west coast.
Atacama Desert: Located in Chile, this place is so dry that some spots haven't seen rain in centuries.
Aconcagua: The highest point you can reach without heading over to the Himalayas.

Las Antillas,. The Antilles

1. The Greater Antilles (Antillas Mayores)
Located in the northern and western part of the chain, these include the largest and most populous islands in the region:
Cuba: The largest island.
Hispaniola: Shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Jamaica: Located south of Cuba.
Puerto Rico: A self-governing commonwealth of the United States.
Cayman Islands: A British Overseas Territory.
2. The Lesser Antilles (Antillas Menores)
A crescent-shaped arc of smaller islands to the east and south, further categorized into:
Leeward Islands: Includes the Virgin Islands, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis.
Windward Islands: Includes Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada.
Leeward Antilles: Islands off the coast of South America, such as Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao.

1492. The Arrival of Columbus_La llegada de Colón

Marked the beginning of European colonization, leading to profound demographic, cultural, and political changes across the Americas. Marcó el inicio de la colonización europea, lo que provocó profundos cambios demográficos, culturales y políticos en todo el continente americano.

1494. Treaty of Tordesillas_Tratado de Tordesillas

This agreement between Spain and Portugal divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe, shaping the linguistic and cultural map of Latin America, notably giving Brazil to Portugal and the rest to Spain. Este acuerdo entre España y Portugal dividió las tierras recién descubiertas fuera de Europa, configurando el mapa lingüístico y cultural de América Latina, otorgando notablemente Brasil a Portugal y el resto a España.

Early 1500’s. Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires_Conquista de los Imperios Azteca e Inca

Spanish conquistadors overthrew the Aztec Empire in Mexico and the Inca Empire in Peru, paving the way for centuries of colonial rule and the marginalization of indigenous peoples. Los conquistadores españoles derrotaron al Imperio Azteca en México y al Imperio Inca en Perú, allanando el camino para siglos de dominio colonial y la marginación de los pueblos indígenas.

1697 The Treaty of Ryswick

Established France's formal control over the western third of Hispaniola, which became the colony of Saint-Domingue and later Haiti. Colonial Division Spain ceded this territory to France, recognizing French occupation that had persisted for decades through buccaneers and settlers on Tortuga and the mainland. The eastern two-thirds remained Spanish Santo Domingo, creating the island's lasting split.

_Colonial Division

Spain ceded this territory to France, recognizing French occupation that had persisted for decades through buccaneers and settlers on Tortuga and the mainland. The eastern two-thirds remained Spanish Santo Domingo, creating the island's lasting split

Sugar Plantation

SUGAR

Puerto Rico, caña

Coffee Plantation

Social & cultural changes.
Cambios sociales y culturales.

1823 The Monroe Doctrine

Sought to end European intervention in the Americas. Key Principles of the Monroe Doctrine:
Non-Interference by U.S.: The United States would not interfere in the internal affairs or wars of European nations.
Non-Interference by Europe: European powers should not interfere with the newly independent nations in the Americas.
No New Colonization: The Western Hemisphere was no longer open to colonization by any European power.
Hostile Act: Any attempt by a European power to control or oppress a nation in the Americas would be seen as a hostile act against the United States.

1823 The Ripe Fruit Theory. John Quincy Adams

The "ripe fruit theory" is primarily a 19th-century political concept articulated by U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams in 1823 regarding the future of Cuba.
The core idea was:
Natural Analogy: Adams analogized Cuba to a piece of fruit that, once it became "ripe" (weakened its ties to Spain), would naturally and inevitably fall into the lap of the United States.
Strategic Patience: The theory argued against immediate, forceful seizure, advocating instead for strategic patience, believing the island's annexation was a "law of nature" because of its geographic proximity to the U.S.
Policy Context: This concept was a key component of U.S. foreign policy related to the Monroe Doctrine and Manifest Destiny, justifying future American expansion into the Caribbean.

United Fruit Company

A giant American company that grew millions of bananas in Central America starting around 1899. The United Fruit Company (UFCO) worked in places like Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, and parts of the Caribbean and Colombia. They owned huge farms—up to 3.5 million acres by the 1930s—plus railroads, ports, and telegraph lines to ship bananas to the U.S. and Europe. UFCO had so much power they got special deals from local governments, like low taxes. This upset workers, leading to big strikes (like one in Costa Rica in 1934) and even helping cause a government change in Guatemala in 1954. People called it "neocolonialism" because it felt like the U.S. controlled these countries through bananas!

Ferro Carril

Railroad builders were like the pioneers of the banana boom in Central America from the 1870s to the 1930s. Take Minor C. Keith—he finished a tough railroad in Costa Rica and got 800,000 acres of land as a reward (almost 9% of the country!). Guys like him built tracks in Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala mainly to carry bananas for companies like United Fruit to ports. Governments were desperate for rails, so they handed over land and power. These "magnates" created jobs but also locked countries into banana-only economies, sparking takeovers and earning United Fruit the nickname El Pulpo (The Octopus) for grabbing everything.

Banana republics

Ever wonder where the term "banana republic" comes from? Writer Porter O. Henry made it up in 1904 to describe small Central American countries like Honduras, Guatemala, and Costa Rica. From the early 1900s, U.S. companies like United Fruit ran almost everything there—land, trains, ports, even influencing governments. In return for building railroads, they got massive land for free and created "banana towns" focused only on growing and shipping fruit. This made countries depend on one crop, leaving them poor and unstable when diseases or prices dropped. The phrase reminds us how big companies can shape whole nations.

The Platt Amendment was a 1901 U.S. law. It laid out the terms for the U.S. military to leave Cuba after the Spanish-American War.
This law forced Cuba to accept U.S. control. Key rules included:
The U.S. could step in (intervene) in Cuban business.
Cuba had to lease naval bases to the U.S. (like Guantánamo Bay).
Cuba couldn't make its own foreign policy or take on too much debt.
Essentially, the U.S. made Cuba its protectorate (a country controlled and protected by another). While the amendment stopped other countries from colonizing Cuba, it ensured the U.S. had strong influence over the island's politics, money, and safety.
The U.S. canceled most of this law in 1934.

1901 Platt Amendment

Platt Amendment
The Platt Amendment was a 1901 U.S. law. It laid out the terms for the U.S. military to leave Cuba after the Spanish-American War.
This law forced Cuba to accept U.S. control. Key rules included:
The U.S. could step in (intervene) in Cuban business.
Cuba had to lease naval bases to the U.S. (like Guantánamo Bay).
Cuba couldn't make its own foreign policy or take on too much debt.
Essentially, the U.S. made Cuba its protectorate (a country controlled and protected by another). While the amendment stopped other countries from colonizing Cuba, it ensured the U.S. had strong influence over the island's politics, money, and safety.
The U.S. canceled most of this law in 1934.

(1911-1942 ) 1915-1934. U.S. Occupation of Haiti.

This is how Haiti became a "shithole" country.
In December 1914, approximately $500,000 in gold (the equivalent of roughly 26,329 ounces) was taken from Haiti's national bank by U.S. Marines
Transfer: The gold was loaded onto the gunboat USS Machias and shipped to the vaults of National City Bank of New York (now Citibank). Initial Demand: The original amount demanded was 150 million francs, a sum nearly six times Haiti's annual revenue and more than ten times what the United States paid France for the Louisiana Territory. The demand was delivered by a fleet of 14 French warships, essentially an act of extortion.
Negotiated Amount: In 1838, the outstanding debt was reduced to 90 million francs.
Total Paid: Haiti ultimately paid about 112 million francs (approximately $560 million in today's dollars) over a period of more than a century, with the final payment made in 1947.

Jingoism

Jingoism is defined as an intense form of nationalism characterized by an aggressive foreign policy and an eagerness for military confrontation. It manifests as an arrogant belief in a nation's superiority and a preference for forceful, often bullying, action over peaceful diplomacy. This fervent national pride drives calls for military expansion and intervention while frequently ignoring the sovereignty or viewpoints of other countries. The term originated in 1870s England, stemming from the phrase "by jingo" in a popular music hall song that advocated war with Russia.

1936-1975 Casualties of Spanish Civil War.

SPANISH CIVIL WAR
The Spanish Civil War began on July 17, 1936, with a revolt by right-wing military officers that quickly spread from Spanish Morocco to mainland Spain, led in part by General Francisco Franco. Political instability, stemming from the establishment of the Second Republic in 1931 and subsequent power shifts between liberal, socialist, and conservative forces, set the stage for the conflict. The war erupted after the leftist Popular Front coalition came to power in February 1936, following a period where Franco had suppressed leftist uprisings and been appointed army chief of staff.

1976-1983 Argentina's "Dirty War".

Argentina's "Dirty War" involved state-sponsored human rights abuses by a military junta, systematically abducting, torturing, and murdering political dissidents known as the desaparecidos (the disappeared) through methods including "death flights". An estimated 9,000 to 30,000 victims were targeted, leading to the emergence of groups like the "Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo" and ongoing efforts for justice through investigations and DNA analysis.

1973 Chile.

By causing scarcity through extortion, through torture, imprisonment, enforced disappearances and assassinations, the CIA and right-wing forces in the country attempted to destabilize the country especially after Allende nationalized natural resources. On Sep. 11, 1973, Gen. Augusto Pinochet led the military all the way to the presidential palace with the backing of the CIA, who provided him with all the necessary weapons and armored vehicles.

1975-1983 Operation Condor

"Operation Condor" was a covert campaign of political repression and state terror carried out by right-wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America from approximately 1975 to 1983. Participating Countries: The primary members were Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay, with Brazil joining later. Ecuador and Peru participated in more peripheral roles.

1961 Playa Girón / Bay of Pigs

Approximately 1,500 CIA-trained exiles, known as Brigade 2506, landed at Playa Girón and Playa Larga on the Bay of Pigs. The site of a failed US-backed invasion of Cuba by a group of Cuban exiles in April 1961. The operation aimed to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government but ended in a decisive defeat for the invading forces, becoming a major foreign policy embarrassment for the United States.

Influential figures.
Los Grandes Personajes

c. 1480 – c. 1550 Juan Garrido

A prominent Black conquistador of West African origin who played a significant role in the Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas. He is recognized as the first known free African to set foot on what is now the United States.

c. 1500–1539 Estevanico

Also known as Mustafa Azemmouri or Esteban the Moor, was the first person of North African and Muslim descent to explore the interior of North America. Born in Azemmour, Morocco, he became a pivotal figure in the 16th-century exploration of the American Southwest. ey Historical Roles
The Narváez Expedition (1527–1536): Estevanico was one of only four survivors (out of 300–600 men) of a disastrous Spanish mission to Florida. Alongside Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, he trekked nearly 2,000 miles across the modern-day Gulf Coast, Texas, and Mexico.
Expert Linguist & Healer: He served as an essential intermediary, using his talent for languages and sign language to communicate with indigenous tribes. During their journey, he and the other survivors gained a reputation as "faith healers" among Native Americans.
Guide to Cíbola: In 1539, he led an expedition under Fray Marcos de Niza to find the fabled "Seven Cities of Gold" (Cíbola).
Enslavement: He was sold into slavery to the Spanish nobleman Andrés Dorantes de Carranza around 1520–1522. His name "Estevanico" (Little Stephen) was a diminutive form often used for subalterns or slaves.
Origins: Scholars believe he was of Berber or West African descent, raised in Morocco.
Freedom: Some historical accounts suggest he may have been freed after the Narváez expedition, potentially making him the first known freed slave in North America

1648/1651–1695 Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648/1651–1695) was a Mexican nun, scholar, and legendary Spanish Golden Age poet known as "The Tenth Muse." A self-taught prodigy, she famously defended women's right to education in The Answer and critiqued male hypocrisy in her poem "Hombres necios." She remains a feminist icon and a central figure in Latin American literature.

1815 Alexandre Pétion & Simón Bolívar

In 1815, Haitian President Alexandre Pétion provided refuge and critical military supplies, including 6,000 rifles and ammunition, to Simón Bolívar after his forces were defeated. In exchange for this support, Pétion requested that Bolívar abolish slavery in all territories he liberated. This alliance allowed Bolívar to return to South America and ultimately achieve independence for six nations.

1845–1896 Antonio Maceo Grajales. The Bronze Titan (El Titán de Bronce).

José Antonio de la Caridad Maceo Grajales(1845–1896), known as the "Bronze Titan," was an Afro-Cuban Major General and a pivotal leader in Cuba’s war for independence from Spain. He is celebrated for leading the Western Invasion, fiercely advocating for the abolition of slavery, and promoting a unified, self-reliant Cuban identity. He died in combat in 1896 and remains a national symbol of resilience.

1925–2003 Celia Cruz

The powerhouse "Queen of Salsa" who transformed Latin music into a global phenomenon. From her early days in Havana with La Sonora Matancera to her dominance of the New York salsa scene, she used her voice and vibrant presence to celebrate Afro-Cuban identity. Her legacy as a cultural ambassador is immortalized on the U.S. quarter and in her timeless hits like "La Vida Es Un Carnaval".

1925–1992 Nicomedes Santa Cruz

The most significant Afro-Peruvian intellectual of the 20th century, he was crucial to the revival of Afro-Peruvian culture. A master poet of the décima style, he used his work to document the history of Afro-Peruvians, denounce racism, and popularize forgotten musical forms (festejo, landó). He published several books and albums and used various media as forums for social justice and cultural recognition.

1930- Present Dolores Huerta

A prominent American labor leader and civil rights activist celebrated for co-founding the United Farm Workers (UFW) with César Chávez. She is known for her pivotal role in negotiating contracts, leading successful consumer boycotts (such as the national grape boycott), and lobbying for landmark legislation like the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975.

A pivotal figure who served as the President of Venezuela from 1999 until his death in 2013. A former career military officer, he led a failed coup in 1992 but later won the presidency by promising to dismantle the corrupt political establishment and redistribute oil wealth to the poor.

1954–2013 Hugo Chávez

Key Leadership Eras
Bolivarian Revolution: Chávez launched this movement to implement "21st-century socialism," focused on nationalism, a centralized economy, and anti-imperialism.
Constitutional Overhaul: He oversaw the creation of the 1999 Constitution, which renamed the country the "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela" and significantly expanded presidential powers.
Survival of Opposition: He survived a brief 2002 coup attempt and a massive 2002–2003 oil strike, eventually purging the state oil company (PDVSA) of dissenters to consolidate control.

1926–2016 Fidel Castro

The leader of the Cuban Revolution who transformed Cuba into a communist state and ruled for nearly five decades. He is a polarizing figure known for implementing universal healthcare and literacy while simultaneously being condemned for human rights abuses and suppressing political dissent. His alliance with the Soviet Union placed Cuba at the center of Cold War conflicts like the Cuban Missile Crisis.

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